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:General
:Content
:Terms
:Participants
:Resources
Course design and materials development:
Hubert Truckenbrodt
Original web pages:
Kathrin Eichler
Sonja Lohrengel
Hubert Truckenbrodt
Maintained by:
Sam Featherston
Last change 13.10.2010
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Click
here for a downloadable pdf-list of all terms (13pp)
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| General
Terms |
| TERM |
DEFINITION |
EXAMPLE |
GERMAN
TERM |
| generative
grammar |
A
formally explicit grammar which defines the set of grammatical
sentences in a language; the term has been introduced by Chomsky
in this sense, and is also more generally used for the grammar(s)
developed by Chomsky and the research community around him.
|
S
-> NP VP
VP-> V NP
NP -> John, Mary
V -> likes
generates:
John likes Mary
Mary likes John |
Generative
Grammatik |
| language
acquisition |
The
process or result of learning a particular aspect of language,
or the language as a whole; the term is used with reference
both to the learning of a first language by children (child
language acquisition) and to the learning of further languages
or varieties (second language or foreign language
acquisition). |
What
is your native language? |
(Erst-/Zweit-)
Spracherwerb
|
| morphology |
The branch of grammar that studies how words are formed from
morphemes. |
|
Morphologie |
| phonetics |
The
study of the characteristics of human sound-making, especially
of those sounds used in speech; generally divided into articulatory,
acoustic, and auditory branches. |
|
Phonetik |
| phonology |
The
study of the sound systems of languages, and of the general
or universal properties displayed by these systems. |
|
Phonologie |
| pragmatics |
the
study of the use of language in context |
|
Pragmatik |
| semantics |
The
study of meaning in language; in generative grammar: how the
meanings of words combine to form complex meanings of phrases
and sentences. |
|
Semantik |
| syntax |
The
study of the rules governing the way words and morphemes are
combined to form phrases and sentences |
|
Syntax |
|
| |
| top |
| |
| Terms
for Syntax (and Morphology) |
| |
| TERM |
DEFINITION |
EXAMPLE |
GERMAN
TERM |
| adjunct |
an
optional element of a grammatical construction, whose
removal does not affect the structural identity of the construction.
[In the theory of generative grammar you are learning in class:]
An adjunct is attached to a node A by
creating a second, higher node A, and attaching the adjunct
as a daughter to this higher node A., and as a sister to the
lower (original) node A. This operation is called adjunction
[G. Adjunktion], and the adjunct can be said to adjoin
to A [G. an A adjungieren]. Only words are assumed to
adjoin to words, and only phrases are assumed to adjoin to phrases.
The notion adjunct contrasts with argument. |
yellow
in
a yellow chair
sometimes
in
John snores sometimes
|
Adjunkt |
| adverb |
a
type of word that usually occurs as an adjunct to a VP or to
a sentence. It most typically expresses such notions as time,
place, manner, instrument, or circumstance. Sometimes
considered a grammatical category separate from adjectives. |
often,
happily, carefully |
Adverb |
| adverbial |
an
element of clause structure which functions like an adverb.
However, while the adverb is always a single word, the adverbial
may also be a phrase with more than one word. |
in
the zoo,
with all her strength
|
Adverbiale |
| affix |
a
functional bound morpheme, typically short and with a functional
meaning. |
re
in re-write
-s in cat-s
|
Affix |
| aspect |
a
grammatical category which relates to the internal temporal
structure of a situation |
perfective,
imperfective, progressive, habitual, durative, punctual, iterative |
Aspekt |
| auxiliary
verb |
a
verb which helps to express such grammatical distinctions as
tense, mood, and aspect. |
English
auxiliaries:
do, have, be
English modal aux.:
may, might, will, can, ... |
Hilfsverb,
Auxiliar |
| bound
morpheme |
a
morpheme which cannot stand alone to make a word, but must be
combined with something else within a word. Contrasts with free
morpheme. |
plural
-s in tree-s,
cran- in cran-berry [Preisel- in Preisel-beere] |
Gebundenes
Morphem |
| circumfix |
an
affix with two parts, one placed to the left, the other placed
to the right of the element the affix attaches to. |
German
ge -__-t in
ge-leg-t |
Zirkumfix |
| clause |
A
type of grammatical construction intermediate between a sentence
and a phrase, containing such major functional elements as subject
and verb; classified into independent (main) clause and dependent
(subordinate) clause. In the theory we are learning, a CP (minus
any CPs that may be
embedded in it). |
Mary
thinks that it is raining:
main clause: Mary thinks;
embedded clause: that it is raining |
main
clause
= Hauptsatz
subordinate
clause
= Nebensatz
|
| composition
or compounding |
formation
of new words by putting together roots or stems (see below)
or words. The result of composition is called a compound. |
highschool
chicken thief |
Komposition |
| constituent |
In
syntactic analysis: a part of a larger structure which forms
a distinct syntactic unit within that larger structure. In a
tree diagram, a constituent is represented as a node of the
tree. Usually, only a continuous sequence can form a constituent.
|
all
bracketed elements in
[[under][[the][sofa]]] |
Konstituente |
| coordination |
('list' with and, or) the linking of two or more
elements as conjuncts in a coordinate structure [G. koordinierte
Struktur], usually with the help of a conjunction [G. (nebenordnende)
Konjunktion] such as and, or. |
Mary
and John
run and hide,
der Tisch und die Stühle |
Koordination |
| declarative |
a
type of main clause typically used to make a statement; contrasts
with interrogative (question) and imperative. |
John
is sleeping.
Hans schläft. |
Deklarativsatz |
| derivation |
formation
of new words by adding affixes. |
sing-er |
Derivation |
| finite
verb |
A
verb which carries tense, number, and mood distinctions. Finite
verbs can occur on their own in an independent clause. Contrasts
with non-finite verbs, which are infinitives or participles.
|
John
has sung:
finite: has
non-finite: sung
|
finites
Verb |
| free
morpheme |
a
morpheme which can stand alone to make a word by itself. Contrasts
with bound morpheme. |
woman,
smart, ..., blue in blueberry
[G. blau in Blaubeere] |
Freies
Morphem |
| function
word |
A
word which has little or no meaning of its own but which has
a grammatical function. [This definition for getting an initial
sense; ultimately function words have abstract meanings in formal
semantics.] |
the,
of, and; have in I have seen her. |
Funktionswort |
| head-final |
a
language or maximal projection is called head-final if the head
standardly appears in final position in its maximal projection,
following any specifiers and complements. |
German
VP:
[Bücher lesen]
Lg.: Japanese |
(kopffinal) |
| head-initial |
a
language or maximal projection in which the head standardly
precedes its complement(s). (Usage is a bit fuzzy where specifiers
are concerned.) |
English
VP:
[read books]
Lg.: English |
(kopfinitial) |
| infix |
an
affix which is placed inside of the element it attaches to. |
Tagalog
-um in
sulat, s-um-ulat
|
Infix |
| inflection |
formation
of grammatical variants of a word. |
book,
book-s
sing, sing-s |
Flexion |
| lexical
word |
a
morpheme/word which has a dictionary meaning. |
cat,
take, green |
Lexikalisches
Wort |
| mood |
the
grammatical expression of the degree or kind of reality that
the speaker attributes to the rest of a sentence. It is often
expressed by the finite verb, where typical mood distinctions
are those between indicative [G. Indikativ],
subjunctive [G. Konjunktiv], and imperative [G. Imperativ].
It is also often expressed by modal verbs [G. Modalverben],
such as may, can, shall, must. |
Indicative:
that he goes
dass er geht
Subjunctive:/Konj.:
that he go
dass er gehe/ginge |
Modus |
| morpheme |
Traditional
approximate definition: the minimal unit carrying meaning.
More careful but less informative definition: The minimal unit
relevant to morphological and syntactic analysis. |
tree-s
consists of two morphemes
tree and -s |
Morphem |
| paradigm |
the
full set of inflected forms exhibited by some lexical item or
class of lexical items. [What you see on the right is one paradigm.] |
| |
sg. |
pl. |
| 1st |
am |
are |
| 2nd |
are |
are |
| 3rd |
is |
are |
|
Paradigma |
| prefix |
an
affix which precedes the element it is attached to. |
un-
in un-likely |
Präfix |
| root |
a
morpheme from a lexical class, typically V, N, A, from which
a lexical word is built (by adding affixes). |
sing
in sing-er
|
Wurzel |
| sentence |
1.
traditionally, any utterance or sequence of words which is
regarded as capable of standing alone to express a coherent
thought;
2. in generative grammar, the largest constituent that is
capable of syntactic characterization. – In the theory
we are learning, an IP or CP that is not embedded in higher
structure.
|
Der
Bär schüttelte sich, nachdem er gebadet hatte.
|
Satz |
| stem |
a
morphological constituent larger than the root and smaller than
the word. Derivational affixes are inside of the stem, and inflectional
affixes attach to the stem. |
word:
singers
stem: singer
root: sing
|
Stamm |
| suffix |
an affix which follows the element it is attached to |
-s
in tree-s |
Suffix |
| tense |
the
grammatical expression of the time of what is said in the rest
of in the sentence; traditionally classified into past, present,
and future, with other contrasts recognized depending on the
language. |
sing,
sang, has hung, had sung, will sing |
Tempus |
| word |
The
smallest unit of grammar which can stand alone. |
tree
is a word, tree-s is a word, -s is not a word.
|
Wort |
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| top |
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| Terms
for Semantics (and Pragmatics) |
| |
| TERM |
DEFINITION |
EXAMPLE |
GERMAN
TERM |
| antonymy |
the
sense relationship between words (or expressions) of opposition
with respect to some component of meaning. Antonyms:
words (or expressions) that are opposite with respect to some
component of their meaning. |
bad - good |
Antonymie |
| assertion |
(i)
statement; a sentence which presents information as true, as
opposed to sentences that ask questions, issue commands, etc.
(ii) that part of the information encoded in a sentence which
is presented by the speaker as true, as opposed to that portion
which is presupposed. |
Peter
stopped smoking on Jan.1.
asserts that Peter has not been smoking since Jan.1.
|
Assertion,
Behauptung |
| cancel
an implicature |
Since
implicatures are not logical entailments but 'soft' inferences,
it is usually possible to make them go away by explicitly saying
something that contradicts the implicature; this is called cancelling
the implicature. |
[I
wonder if any of the boys went to the party.]
Oh yes, some of the boys went to the party, in fact all of them. |
(eine
Implikatur "löschen") |
| compositionality |
a
view or principle in formal semantics, according to which the
meaning of a larger syntactic constituent is derived from the
meanings of its parts. |
extension
of [red car] is extension of [red] intersected with extension
of [car] |
Kompositionalitäts-prinzip |
| connotation |
the
set of associations (personal or communal) that the use of a
word evokes. Contrasts with denotation. |
winter:
cold, with snow, skiing, ... |
Konnotation |
| constative |
=
statement. Used on contrast to performative. |
Mary
is opening the door. |
|
| contradiction |
a
sentence that cannot be true, or two sentences that cannot both
be true |
This
married man is a bachelor. |
Widerspruch,
Kontradiktion |
| coreference |
relation
between two phrases, typically DPs, that are interpreted as
referring to the same entity. In linguistic representations,
coreference is typically represented by coindexing. |
[Lisa]i
said that [she]i would come. |
Koreferenz |
| declarative |
see
syntax section
|
| defeasible |
An
inference is defeasible if it is possible to cancel it by adding
additional premises to the original ones. |
Everyone
I talke to likes ice-cream ~> Everyone likes ice-cream.
|
|
| demand
(command, request) |
sentence
function which is typically realized by an imperative sentence;
characteristic for this function: The speaker wants to get
the listener to do something.
|
(Please)
pick John up at the airport! |
Forderung
(Befehl, Bitte) |
| denotation
(also: referential meaning) |
good
approximation to begin with: the set of elements in the real
world picked out by a linguistic expression. |
Denotation
of [John]: the person John. Denotation of [red]: the set of
red individuals. |
Denotation |
| entailment |
intuitively:
a relation between twosentences in which one sentence follows
from the other sentence. More precisely: a relation between
two sentences in which the truth of one sentence guarantees
the truth of the other sentence. |
a.
Prince is a dog.
b. Prince is an animal.
(a. entails b.) |
Implikation,
logische Folgerung |
| exclamation |
sentence
function which can be realized by declaratives and interrogatives,
also without a finite element in C; characteristic for this
function: The speaker expresses some emotion (such as surprise,
amazement).
|
John
has three cars! (declarative)
How
can John have three cars! (interrogative)
|
|
| extension |
essentially
the same as denotation, though often used in contrast
to intension, and as part of a formal semantic analysis
in which all expressions have an extension. |
woman
- extension:
set of all women
- intension:
~female person |
Extension |
| homophony |
relation
between words with the same pronunciation but different meanings.
Homophones are words with the same pronunciation but different
meanings. |
light:
1. not heavy
2. illumination |
Homophonie |
| illocutionary |
relating
to the act that is performed by a speaker by virtue of an utterance |
The
speaker expresses amazement that... |
illokutionär |
| imperative |
sentence
type which is typically used for commands, demands, and requests |
Open
the window! |
Imperativ |
|
implicature |
also
conversational implicature; a 'soft' inference based on an
addressee's assumption that the speaker is following the conversational
maxims
|
|
|
| interrogative |
the
sentence type in which
questions are typically expressed |
Is
Mary's watch broken? |
|
| intension |
intuitively,
the content of an expression; contrasts with extension |
(see
extension) |
|
| paraphrase |
either
of two sentences that can be said to have the same meaning,
and that differ in the words used or in their structure |
1.
I gave the book to Eric.
2. I gave Eric the book. |
Paraphrase |
| performative |
Performative
utterances are used to do something, rather than to say that
something is or is not the case. They are 'automatically true'
(or 'always true' or 'have no truth-value', depending on who
you ask).
|
(Explicit)
performative:
I promise to be there at 3.00.
Primary
performative:
I'll be there at 3.00.
|
performative
Äußerung |
| polysemy |
association
of a lexical item with different but related meanings. |
bright:
1. shining
2. intelligent
|
Polysemie |
| possible
worlds |
hypothetical
(imagined, non-real) scenarios. In philosophy of language and
in formal semantics, a formal construct of the theory that is
important in modeling such hypothetical scenarios, and in modeling
intensions. |
|
mögliche
Welten |
| presupposition |
that
which a speaker assumes (takes for granted) in saying a sentence,
as opposed to what is actually asserted. Presuppositions come
from lexical items or from constructions. A standard semantic
analysis of presuppositions is that they must be satisfied for
the sentence to be true or false. |
Peter
stopped drinking beer for breakfast on January 1st.
presupposes
that before January 1st, Peter drank beer for breakfast.
|
Präsupposition |
| presupposition
accomodation |
Typically
the content of a presupposition is known by speaker and hearer.
However, if the
hearer of an utterance did not already know what is presupposed,
she may be ready to add that to her knowledge (so as to make
everything coherent). |
The
brother of my girl-friend is coming to visit.
presupposes that there is a unique brother of my girl-friend.
Even
if the hearer did not know this, she may be ready to assume
it's true and add it to her knowledge.
|
|
| proposition |
The
intension (meaning) of a statement, ignoring the illocutionary
force of the statement. Intuitively equivalent to a 'state of
affairs': the state of affairs described by the statement. |
(It
is true that) Mary is opening the door. |
Proposition |
| question |
sentence
function which is typically realized by an interrogative sentence;
characteristic for this function: The speaker requests information
from the listener.
|
Did
John arrive at 3.00? |
Frage |
| reference |
denotation,
extension; in the simplest cases, the relation between
a syntactic phrase such as a DP and an individual or thing in
the real world |
(see
denotation) |
Referenz |
| scalar
implicature |
an
implicature involving elements that are ordered on a scale,
and deriving from the maxime of quantity (be informative!). |
John
has 3 cows.
implicature:
John does not have 4 cows.
scale here: 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
|
Skalare
Implikatur |
| speech
acts |
the
kind of activity a speaker performs with his or her utterance.
|
committing
to the truth of a certain state of affairs (Mary has arrived.),
requesting information (Has Mary arrived?), declaring
a particular change in the world (I open the meeting.)
|
Sprechakte |
| statement
|
sentence
function which is typically realized by a declarative sentence;
characteristic for this function:
- The speaker asserts the truth, commits to the truth of the
statement.
- The speaker also wants the listener to accept the truth
of the statement. (controversial)
|
John
arrived at 3.00. |
|
| synonymy |
the
relationship between words (or expressions) of sameness of meaning
in some or all contexts. Synonyms: words (or expressions)
that have the same meaning in some or all contexts. |
automobile
- car |
Synonymie |
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| top |
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| Mathematical
Notions |
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| Terms
for Phonology (and Phonetics) |
| |
| TERM |
DEFINITION |
EXAMPLE |
GERMAN
TERM |
| acoustic
phonetics |
the
study of the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted
between mouth and ear; usually conducted with the help of computer
programs that analyze speech recordings and visualize their
properties. |
|
akustische
Phonetik |
| allophone |
Two
allophones of a phoneme are two sounds that are in complementary
distribution, and are both derived from the same underlying
phoneme. |
In
German,  is a phoneme,
with the allophones 
and  . |
Allophon |
| alveolar
ridge |
see
picture |
|
Zahndamm |
| assimilation |
a
phonetic or phonological process by which a sound becomes more
similar to, or takes on one or more properties of, another sound
in its environment. |
|
Assimilation |
| auditory
phonetics |
also
perceptual phonetics; the study of the perceptual responses
to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve, and brain. |
|
auditive
Phonetik |
| cartilage |
|
|
Knorpel |
| cavity |
(a)
hollow or empty space
(b) hole or bad part of a tooth |
|
(a)
Hohlraum
(b) Loch im Zahn |
complementary
distribution
|
Two
sounds A and B are in complementary distribution if they do
not occur in the same environment. Often, this means that one
of the two sound occurs in one environment only, while the other
sound occurs in all other possible environments. |
In
German, occurs only
after back vowels, while
occurs in other environments but never after back vowels. |
komplementäre
Verteilung |
| consonant |
speech
sound produced with a significant constriction of the airflow
in the oral tract. |
p,
f, m |
Konsonant |
| corona |
tip/blade
of the tongue (see picture) |
|
Korona |
| diphthong |
a
sequence of two vowel qualities in the same syllable; classified
as either a single (changing) vowel or as a sequence of two
vowels, depending on language and theory. |
au,
ai, ou |
Diphthong |
| dorsum |
body
of the tongue (see picture) |
|
Dorsum |
| esophagus |
'pipe'
upward from the stomach |
|
Speiseröhre |
| inventory |
the
set of sounds (phonemes) used in underlying representations
in a given language |
The
inventory of English includes  ,
but not or  (But see footnote 1) |
(Laut-)Inventar |
| larynx |
part
of the human anatomy on top of the trachea; the larynx is most
noticeable in the adult male neck, where it 'sticks out' as
what is known as the Adam's apple. The main non-speech function
of the larynx is to close off the trachea and the lungs in the
process of swallowing food. The speech-functions of the larynx
are taken on by the vocal cords (see separate definition), which
are inside of the larynx. These functions include the production
of the voicing of sounds, and the production of [h] and of the
glottal stop. |
|
Kehlkopf,
Larynx |
| Natural
class (of sounds of a given language) |
The
sets of sounds picked out by a feature or a combination of features.
This set must include all and only the sounds picked out by
this feature or combination of features. |
[+high]
: [i, u]
('high vowels')
[-high,
-low] : [e, o]
('mid vowels') |
Natürliche
Klasse |
| obstruent |
sounds
that are produced with a build-up of air-pressure in the vocal
tract. Many obstruents have a voiceless and a voiced version,
of which the voiceless one is considered unmarked. The obstruents
comprise plosives, fricatives, and affricates. |
p,
s, ts
|
Obstruent |
| (soft,
hard) palate |
see
picture |
|
(weicher,
harter) Gaumen |
| pharynx |
the
tubular cavity which constitutes the throat above the larynx |
|
Rachenraum,
Pharynx |
| phoneme |
(traditionally
defined as the smallest unit that can make a difference in meaning;
here also:) a sound that is in the inventory of the language. |
(see
allophone) |
Phonem |
| phonetic
representation (PR) |
'what
we hear or say'; a form that is either identical to the underlying
representation or derived from it by the application of phonological
rules. |
|
phonetische
Form |
| phonetics |
the
study of the physical and physiological aspects of human sound
production and perception; generally divided into articulatory,
acoustic, and auditory branches. |
|
Phonetik |
| phonology |
the
study of the sound systems of languages, and of the general
or universal properties displayed by these systems. |
|
Phonologie |
| places
of articulation |
 |
| sonorant |
sound
not produced with a build-up of air-pressure in the vocal tract;
typically voiced. The sonorants comprise the nasal stops, the
liquids, the glides, and the vowels. |
n,
l, j, i |
Sonorant,
Sonorlaut |
| trachea |
'pipe'
that connects the lungs and the larynx |
|
Luftröhre |
| transcription |
A
method of writing down the pronunciation of a speech sound,
word or utterance in a systematic and consistent way. |
for (orthographic) 'think' |
Lautschrift,
Transkription, phonetische Umschrift |
| underlying
representation (UR) |
'what
we memorize'; in phonology, the pronunciation as specified in
the lexical entries of morphemes or words. In a standard cognitive
understanding of the grammar, this is the way speakers memorize
the pronunciation; part of the postulated entries in the mental
lexicon. |
|
phonetische
Form |
| vocal
tract |
the
whole of the air passage above the larynx; it can be divided
into nasal tract (the air passage above the soft palate, within
the nose), and oral tract (the mouth and pharyngeal areas). |
|
Ansatzrohr,
Vokaltrakt |
velum
(=soft palate) |
see
picture |
|
Velum,
weicher Gaumen |
| vowel |
speech
sound produced without a significant constriction of the airflow
in the oral cavity. |
a,
i, o |
Vokal |
Footnote 1: These phonemes do not exist as part of the systematic phonology of English, although both these phonetic forms occur in English. The boy's name "Hugh" starts with and the monster lives in "Loch Ness", which has .
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